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The concept and practice of academic freedom, as recognized presently in Western civilization, date roughly from the 17th century. Before the 17th century, intellectual activities at universities were restricted largely by theological considerations, and opinions or conclusions that conflicted with religious doctrines were likely to be condemned as heretical. In the late 17th century the work of such men as the English philosophers John Locke and Thomas Hobbes helped pave the way for academic freedom in the modern sense. Their writings demonstrated the need for unlimited inquiry in the sciences and for a general approach to learning unrestrained by preconceptions of any kind. In the 18th and 19th centuries, universities in Western Europe and the United States enjoyed increasing academic freedom as acceptance of the experimental methods of the sciences became more widespread and as control of institutions by religious denominations became less rigorous. In Britain, however, religious tests for graduation, fellowships, and teaching positions were not abolished until the late 19th century.
During the second half of the 20th century academic freedom was recognized broadly in most Western countries. However, violations of the right increased as dictatorship emerged in various countries, notably in Germany, Italy, and Russia. Educators in Italy were forced to pledge support to the Fascist regime. Similar restrictions, including the teaching of racist theories in some fields, were enforced in German universities under National Socialism.
Violations of academic freedom also occurred in the United States in the 20th century. A notable example was the Scopes trial, held in Dayton, Tennessee, in 1925. A high school teacher was accused and convicted of violating a state law that forbade the teaching of the theory of evolution in the public schools. This legislation was abolished in 1967.
In the early 1950s, largely because of congressional investigations of communism in the U. S. , many institutions of higher learning adopted regulations requiring loyalty oaths from university teachers. Some of these oaths, insofar as they were required only of teachers, were declared unconstitutional in some state courts. All professional associations of teachers and administrators, including the Nation al Education Association, the American Association of Colleges, and the American Association of University Professors, are opposed to special loyalty oaths and to all violations of academic freedom.
The 1960s and early 1970s were marked by protest and violence on college campuses over United States involvement in the war in Vietnam. In some places professors were dismissed or arrested for pro testing American participation in the war. This turmoil reached a tragic climax in 1970 with the killing of several students during campus demonstrations. In the long run, however, these disturbances led to a broad recognition of the legitimate concerns of students about the quality of higher education, and of the respons
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The English Program for Foreign Students (EPFS), / a program within the College of General Studies at the University of Pennsylvania, / provides training in English, as well as in cultural and academic orientation, / for speakers of other languages. / The program is designed for students and professionals, / who will need English in order to enroll in training programs, / pursue academic courses of study, conduct research, / or engage in cultural, business, or other professional activities. / EPFS courses are taught by trained and experienced instructors, / all of whom have at least an M. A. degree in Teaching English as a Foreign Language. / The EPFS staff is professionally active on both the local and international levels; / staff members include authors of published language teaching materials and recipients of teaching awards. / The EPFS is a member of the Consortium of Intensive English Programs / of the National Association for Foreign student Affairs (NAFSA). /
(1)
听力原文： Hungry for the brightest students, (26)many American stronger universities are actively discounting tuition. And it's the high achievers, rather than the needy students, who are getting a good chunk of the money. The practice is remarkably widespread, reaching almost(27)all but the 30 or so Ivy and other elite colleges that ban merit-based financial aid. Schools are also becoming more aggressive in promoting their discounts. At the DePauw University Website, enter an SAT or ACT score. grade point average and class rank, and a computer program immediately tells you what kind of“ award”. Only“ the real unlucky” pay full price any more, says Kenneth Redd, director of research at the National Association of Student Financial Aid Administrators.(29)About 76% of first-year students got some forms of discount this year at 331 private schools polled annually by the National Association of College and University Business Officers. Average award per student：$7000.At small schools with tuition under about$20000, the average discount is even higher, with some schools returning over half their tuition revenue.
Much as banks and insurers offer special rates to their best customers, schools are giving the biggest breaks to their top students.(29)Public four year colleges, too, are offering discounts.
(28)The flip side of big discounts is that less money is available to improve academic programs and keep school infrastructure up to date. Mr. Redd says he found that universities that have sharply increased their tuition discount rates have seen graduation rates fall, and that's I rue even among highly selective schools.
(33)
A．Students in need of financial help.
B．Students with good academic performance.
C．Students good at negotiating with universities.
D．Students with special contributions.
Community College
Community Colleges, institutions of higher education offer two-year programs of general study or technical or vocational training. Many students receive the first two years (freshman and sophomore years) of postsecondary education at community colleges before pursuing a bachelor's degree at a four-year institution. Community colleges offer a variety of programs and degrees, including certificate programs that require less than two years of work in a specific field of study; terminal associate degrees in professional and technical programs; and associate degrees that may be transferred toward the completion of a bachelor's degree. Most community colleges are nonprofit, public institutions supported by state and local taxes, but there are also independent schools that operate on a for-profit basis.
Two-year postsecondary institutions were first established in the United States in the early 20th century. These schools were called junior colleges because their main function was to offer only the beginning level of general college study. Credits earned at junior colleges could be transferred to another institution where students could complete their final years of college, Now called community colleges, these two-year institutions still offer courses of general academic study to recent high school graduates. However, they also try to serve the educational needs of a greater segment of the community, including older students and workers. Today, most community colleges 6ffer technical, vocational and adult education programs in addition to general academic programs.
For many students, community colleges offer distinct advantages over four-year institutions. For example, most public community colleges charge comparatively low tuition rates, so a greater segment of the community can afford to attend. Public community colleges also have relatively flexible admissions policies. They generally require only a high school diploma or its equivalent, an application to the institution, and occasionally acceptance into one of the institution's programs. Community colleges strive to offer courses in convenient locations, so students may enroll in institutions near their homes. In addition, the schools attempt to offer courses at convenient times, allowing many students to attend on a part-time basis while they work.
In 1996 there were 1462 two-year colleges in the United States, including 1047 public institutions and 415 private institutions. Nearly all of these schools are members of the American Association of Community Colleges, which represents member institutions before public legislatures, conducts educational research, monitors national trends, and publishes information on issues affecting community colleges. Two-year institutions in the United States enroll approximately 5.5 million students annually who take courses for college credit. Nearly half of all first-year college students in the United States are enrolled in two-year institutions. In Canada, most community colleges are members of the Association of Canadian Community Colleges (ACCC). Canadian community colleges offer a similar range of programs as those in the United States. They serve approximately 375,000 full-time and 180,000 part-time students.
Community colleges typically offer a wide range of programs to meet the educational needs of a varied student population. These programs include (1) courses in the arts and sciences and other general academic areas to provide a foundation for students planning to transfer to four-year colleges; (2) technical, vocational programs and courses; (3) developmental programs designed to provide a range of needed academic and living skills, such as courses in English as a second language for non-English speaking immigrants; and (4) part-time continuing (adult) education in general, cultural, and vocational studies.
Students planning t
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College Night Owls Have Lower Grades
College students who are morning people tend to get better grades than those who are night owls (晚睡的人) , according to University of North Texas researchers.
They had 824 undergraduate (大学本科生的) students complete a health survey that included questions about sleep habits and daytime functioning, and found that students who are morning people had higher grade point averages (GPAs) than those who are night people.
"The finding that college students who are evening types have lower GPAs is a very important finding, sure to make its way into undergraduate psychology texts in the near future, along with the research showing that memory is improved by sleep," study co-author Daniel J. Taylor said in a prepared statement.
"Further, these results suggest that it might be possible to improve academic performance by using chronotherapy (时间疗法) to help students retrain their biological clock to become more moming types," Taylor said.
The research was expected to be presented Monday at SLEEP, the annual meeting of the Associated Professional Sleep Societies, in Baltimore.
In other findings expected to be heard at the meeting, University of Colorado researchers found a significant association between insomnia (失眠) and a decline in college students&39; academic performance.
The study included 64 psychology, nursing and medical students, average age 27.4 years, who were divided into two groups--low GPAs and high GPAs.
Among those with low GPAs,69.7 percent had trouble falling asleep,53.1 percent experienced leg kicks or twitches (痉挛) at night,65.6 percent reported waking at night and having trouble falling back to sleep, and 72.7 percent had difficulty concentrating during the day.
"In college students, the complaint of difficulty concentrating during the day continues to have a considerable impact on their ability to succeed in the classroom," study author Dr. James F. Pagel said in a prepared statement. "This study showed that disordered sleep has significant harmful effects on a student&39;s academic performance, including GPAs.
In the first study， students who stay up late ___________. 查看材料
A.had lower GPAs
B.had higher GPAs
C.performed equally well in their studies
D.had little difficulty concentrating during the day
College Night Owls Have Lower Grades
College students who are morning people tend to get better grades than those who are night owls (晚睡的人), according to University of North Texas researchers.
They had 824 undergraduate (大学本科生的) students complete a health survey that included questions about sleep habits and daytime functioning, and found that students who are morning people had higher grade point averages (GPAs) than those who are night people.
"The finding that college students who are evening types have lower GPAs is a very important finding, sure to make its way into undergraduate psychology texts in the near future, along with the research showing that memory is improved by sleep," study co-author Daniel J. Taylor said in a prepared statement.
"Further, these results suggest that it might be possible to improve academic performance by using chronotherapy (时间疗法) to help students retrain their biological clock to become more morning types," Taylor said.
The research was expected to be presented Monday at SLEEP, the annual meeting of the Associated Professional Sleep Societies, in Baltimore.
In other findings expected to be heard at the meeting, University of Colorado researchers found a significant association between insomnia (失眠) and a decline in college students&39; academic performance.
The study included 64 psychology, nursing and medical students, average age 27.4 years, who were divided into two groups--low GPAs and high GPAs.
Among those with low GPAs,69.7 percent had trouble falling asleep,53.1 percent experienced leg kicks or twitches (痉挛) at night,65.6 percent reported waking at night and having trouble falling back to sleep, and 72.7 percent had difficulty concentrating during the day.
"In college students, the complaint of difficulty concentrating during the day continues to have a considerable impact on their ability to succeed in the classroom," study author Dr. James F. Pagel said in a prepared statement. "This study showed that disordered sleep has significant harmful effects on a student&39;s academic performance, including GPAs."
In the first study， students who stay up late 查看材料
A.had lower GPAs
B.had higher GPAs
C.performed equally well in their studies
D.had little difficulty concentrating during the day
College Night Owls Have Lower Grades
College students who are morning people tend to get better grades than those who are night owls(晚睡的人), according to University of North Texas researchers.
They had 824 undergraduate students complete a health survey that included questions about sleep habits and daytime functioning, and found that students who are morning people had higher grade point averages(GPAs) than those who are night people.
"The finding that college students who are evening types have lower GPAs is a very important finding, sure to make its way into undergraduate psychology texts in the near future, along with the research showing that memory is improved by sleep", study co-author Daniel J. Taylor said in a prepared statement.
"Further, these results suggest that it might be possible to improve academic performance by using chronotherapy(时间疗法) to help students retrain their biological clock to become more morning types", Taylor said.
The research was expected to be presented Monday at SLEEP, the annual meeting of the Associated Professional Sleep Societies, in Baltimore.
In other findings expected to be heard at the meeting, University of Colorado researchers found a significant association between insomnia(失眠) and a decline in college students' academic performance.
The study included 64 psychology, nursing and medical students, average age 27.4 years, who were divided into two groups—low GPAs and high GPAs.
Among those with low GPAs, 69.7 percent had trouble falling asleep, 53.1 percent experienced leg kicks or twitches(痉挛) at night, 65.6 percent reported waking at night and having trouble falling back to sleep, and 72.7 percent had difficulty concentrating during the day.
"In college students, the complaint of difficulty concentrating during the day continues to have a considerable impact on their ability to succeed in the classroom", study author Dr. James F. Pagel said in a prepared statement. "This study showed that disordered sleep has significant harmful effects on a student's academic performance, including GPAs".
In the 1st study, students who stay up late______.
A．had lower GPAs.
B．had higher GPAs.
C．performed equally well in their studies.
D．had little difficulty concentrating during the day.
College Night Owls Have Lower Grades
College students who are morning people tend to get better grades than those who are nightowls(晚睡的人), according to ,University of North Texas researchers.
They had 824 undergraduate(大学本科生的)students complete a health survey that included questions about sleep habits and daytime functioning, and found that students who are morning people had higher grade point averages (GPAs) than those who are night people.
"The finding that college students who are evening types have lower GPAs is a very important finding, sure to make its way into undergraduate psychology texts in the near future, along with the research showing that memory is improved by sleep," study co-author Daniel J. Taylor said in a prepared statement.
"Further, these results suggest that it might be possible to improve academic performance by using chronotherapy(时间疗法) to help students retrain their biological clock to become more morning types, "Taylor said.
The research was expected to be presented Monday at SLEEP, the annual meeting of the Associated Professional(专业的) Sleep Societies, in Baltimore.
In other findings expected to be heard at the meeting, University of Colorado researchers found a significant association between insomnia (失眠)and a decline in college students&39; academic performance.
The study included 64 psychology, nursing and medical students, average age 27.4 years, who were divided into two groups--low GPAs and high GPAs.
Among those with low GPAs,69.7 percent had trouble falling asleep,53.1 percent experienced leg kicks or twitches (痉挛)at night,65.6 percent reported waking at night and having trouble falling back to sleep, and 72.7 percent had difficulty concentrating during the day.
"In college students, the complaint of difficulty concentrating during the day continues to have a considerable impact on their ability to succeed in the classroom," study author Dr. James F．Pagel said in a prepared statement. "This study showed that disordered sleep has significant harmful effects on a student&39;s academic performance, including GPAs."
In the first study， students who stay up late__________. 查看材料
A.had lower GPAs
B.had higher GPAs
C.performed equally well in their studies
D.had little difficulty concentrating during the day
was combined with the College of Physicians and Surgeons，chartered in 1809，which survives as a division of Columbia University.
In 1893 the Johns Hopkins Medical School required all applicants to have a college degree and was the first to afford its students the opportunity to further their training in an attached teaching hospital.The growth of medical schools attached with established institutions of learning went together with the development of proprietary(私营的)schools of medicine run for personal profit.most of which had 10W standards and poor facilities In 1910 Abraham Flexner。the American education reformer, wrote Medical Education in the United States and Canada，exposing the poor conditions of most proprietary schools Subsequently the American Medical Association(AMA)and the Association of American Medical Colleges(AAMC)1aid down standards for course content，qualifications of teachers，laboratory facilities，connection with teaching hospitals，and licensing of medical practitioners(开业医师)that survive to this day.By the late 1980s the US and Canada had 142 4.year medical colleges recognized bv the Liaison(联络1 Committee on Medical Education to offer che M.D.degree;during the 1987-88 academic year,47,262 men and 25,686 women entered these colleges and an estimated 11，752 men and 5，958 women were graduated.Graduates，after a year of internship(实习期)，receive licenses to practice if they pass an examination given either by a state board or by the National Board of Medical Examiners.
第6题：In 18th—century America．higher institutions of learning that taught medicine
A．did not exist．
B．were few in number．
C．were better than those in Europe．
D．were known for their teaching hospitals．
Even supporters of the plan, however, worry that it will prove impractical, characterizing it as a well-intentioned idea that has been weakened by compromise and will ultimately generate more paperwork than real change. There's also broad acknowledgement that it may cause unintended consequences of academic deception: more schools offering dishonest courses and cut-down curricula, and heightened pressure on faculty to give passing grades to keep star players qualified.
But with the continued academic struggles of athletes in high-profile sports, particularly in basketball, NCAA leaders believe it's time to take a more aggressive act. Only four out of 10 players on big-time basketball teams graduate even though the vast majority are on full scholarships. The NCAA will hold out the prospect of the ultimate sanction (制裁) for habitually poor performers—a ban from competing in the annual March Madness event and sharing the riches that come with it.
The proposal, which would affect athletes competing at all major colleges and universities, would punish schools with chronically low graduation rates, beginning with a warning, followed by the less of a scholarship and then a ban on postseason play. Each round in the 65-team men's basketball tournament (联赛) is worth more than $ 750000 per school. Schools that perform. well would be rewarded, although the NCAA has yet to determine how.
But it will be years before it's clear whether this carrot-and-stick approach works. Skeptics say the penalties are too weak and too slow to take effect. Others say the quality of a college education isn't measured by grades and graduate rates alone.
English professor Linda said, "Graduation rates themselves don't prove athletes are getting an education." Her argument was approved by the recent disclosure (揭发) of a final exam given by former Georgia assistant basketball coach Jim Harrick Jr. to his class. Among the items on the 20-question, multiple-choice exam were: "How many halves are in a college basketball game？" and "How many points does a 3-point field goal account for in a basketball game？"
The chief purpose of the recent punishment measures proposed by NCAA is to ______.
A．help student athletes play better in the coming matches
B．raise the academic level of those student athletes
C．cut funding to colleges for their poor performance in sports
D．boost the academic researches of colleges and universities
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