题目内容
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The author cites examples in order to illustrate ______.
A．what a distributed system is
B．advantages of distributed systems over centralized systems
C．the development of the distributed system
D．the wide application of distributed systems
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更多“The author cites examples in order to illustrate ______. A．what a distributed system is B．advantag”相关的问题
A．The service sector of the United States economy.
B．The manufacture of bookkeeping and billing machines.
C．Heavy volume data processing requirements.
D．Typewriters, calculators, and manual accounting techniques.
A．personnel in all companies
B．information which can be electronically produced, duplicated, and transmitted
C．staff engaged in business
D．security issues
A．computers and typewriters
B．typewriters and computers
C．typewriters and their peripheral equipment
D．computers and their peripheral equipment
E-Government
电子政务管理
By definition, e-government is simply the use of information and communications technology, such as the Internet, to improve the processes of government. Thus, e- government is in principle nothing new. Governments were among the first users of computers. But the global proliferation of the Internet, which effectively integrates information and communications technology on the basis of open standards, combined with the movement to reform public administration known as New Public Management, has for good reason generated a new wave of interest in the topic. E-government promises to make government more efficient, responsive, transparent and legitimate and is also creating a rapidly growing market of goods and services, with a variety of new business opportunities.
To some, e-government might seem to be little more than an effort to expand the market of e-commerce from business to government[1]. Surely there is some truth in this. E-commerce is marketing and sales via the Internet. Since governmental institutions take part in marketing and sales activities, both as buyers and sellers, it is not inconsistent to speak of e-government applications of e-commerce. Governments do after all conduct business[2].
But e-commerce is not at the heart of e-government. The core task of government is governance, the job of regulating society, not marketing and sales. In modern democracies, responsibility and power for regulation is divided up and shared among the legislative, executive and judicial branches of government[3]. Simplifying somewhat, the legislature is responsible for making policy in the form of laws, the executive for implementing the policy and law enforcement, and the judiciary for resolving legal conflicts. E-government is about, improving the work of all of these branches of government, not just public administration in the narrow sense.
New Public Management is a kind of management theory about how to reform government by replacing rigid hierarchical organizational structures[4]with more dynamic networks of small organizational units; replacing authoritarian, top-down decision and policy-making practices with a more consensual, bottom-up approach which facilitates the participation of as many stakeholders as possible, especially ordinary citizens; adopting a more "customer"-oriented attitude to public services; and applying market principles to enhance efficiency and productivity.
E-government gives New Public Management fresh blood. Not only does information and communications technology[5]provide the infrastructure and software tools needed for a loosely coupled network of governmental units to collaborate effectively, the infiltration of this technology into government agencies tends to lead naturally to institutional reform, since it is difficult to maintain strictly hierarchical channels of communication and control when every civil servant can collaborate efficiently and directly with anyone else via the Internet.
Orthogonal to the division of power among the branches of government is the hierarchical organization of supranational (e. g. European), national, regional and local governments bounded by geographical territory. Information and communications technology creates a "new accessibility", overcoming temporal, geographical and organizational boundaries. Thus e-government can facilitate new forms of collaboration among governments which cut across and diminish such boundaries. The EuroCities project is an example. Perhaps in the long term e-government will help to strengthen the identification of citizens within Europe.
E-government is not only or even primarily about reforming the work processes within and among governmental institutions, but is rather about improving its services to and collaboration with citizens, the business and professional community, and nonprofit and nongovernmental organizations[6]such as associations, trade unions, political parties, churches, and public interest groups[7].
Using World Wide Web[8]portals[9]to create one-stop shops[10]is one currently popular egovernment approach to improving the delivery of public services to citizens. The basic idea of these portals is to provide a single, convenient place to take care of all the steps of a complex administrative process involving multiple government offices, bringing the services of these offices to the citizen instead of requiring the citizen to run from office to office.
Web portals can deliver government services with various levels of interaction. Three levels are usually identified: information, communication, and transactions. Information services deliver government information via static web pages and dynamic web pages generated from databases to citizens, tourists, businesses, associations, public administration, and other government users. Communication services use groupwareon3 technology such as e-mail, discussion forums and chat to facilitate dialogue, participation and feedback in planning and policy-making procedures. Transaction services use online forms, workflow and payment systems to allow citizens and business partners to take care of their business with government online. Typical applications of transaction services for citizens include applying for social benefits, registering automobiles, filing changes of address or applying for building permits. For businesses, perhaps the application of greatest current interest is the online procurement of government contracts.
Often one reads that these three levels of interaction are ordered by complexity, with transactions being the most complex. Presumably this is because of the apparent and challenging security and business process reengineering issues of online transaction processing. Providing high quality information and communication services, however, is no less challenging. Information services need to evolve into knowledge management services and become adaptive, personalised, proactive and accessible from a broader variety of devices. Communication services need to evolve into collaboration services providing better support for argumentation, negotiation, deliberation and other goal-directed forms of structured discourse.
Among the most interesting and challenging sociotechnological issues of e-government are in the area of e—Democracy, which aims to apply information and communication technology to improve the public opinion formation process central to government's primary regulatory function. Here the ambition is to broaden actual public participation, not just the technical possibility, and counter political apathy without denying the poor or poorly educated their civil rights.
Together with the trend towards outsourcing[12]tasks and working with industry in private-public partnerships, this is likely to[13]lead to rapid growth of the e-government market and create plentiful business opportunities, also for small and medium-size enterprises. Viewing e-government projects as mainly an investment in public infrastructure is too restricted, since the investment is also aimed at reducing the size and costs of government while accelerating the growth of the e-government market, helping to create new businesses and jobs in the private sector.
Notes
[1] To some, e-government might seem to be little more than an effort to expand...：对于有些人来说，电子政务似乎只不过是致力于将电子商务从商业领域扩展到政务领域。
little more than只不过是，和……一样。例如：
Her voice is little more than a whisper. 她的声音和耳语差不了多少。
[2] Governments do after all conduct business: 政府的确从事商务活动。do在这里没有实际意义，用助动词“do(does/did)+动词原形”表示强调。例如：
I did come over last night．我昨天晚上的确来了。
She does speak good English. 她的确英语讲得很好。
[3] ...legislative, executive and judicial branches of government: 权力分立(Separation of Powers)，是指将各种国家权力分散，不使其集中在单一机关内的设计。权力分立这一名词首先由启蒙时代法国的哲学家孟德斯鸠所提出，而这样的设计通常以三权分立(Trias Politica)而被熟知。三权分立即为行政、司法、立法三大政府机构共同存在，地位平等且互相制衡的政权组织形式。与其相对立的政权组织形式是议行合一制。
[4] ...replacing rigid hierarchical organizational structure...：替代等级制严格的组织结构……。
[5] not only does information and communications technology...：not, never, hardly, seldom, little, scarcely, neither, nor等否定词作状语位于句首时，句子要采用倒装形式。例如：
Little did I know about him. 我对他不了解。
Hardly had he come in when the bell rang.他刚进教室，上课铃就响了。
[6] nongovernmental organizations：非政府组织(Non-governmental organization，缩写NGO)是一个不属于政府、不由国家建立的组织，通常独立于政府。虽然从定义上包含以营利为目的的企业，但该名词一般仅限于非商业化、合法的、与社会文化和环境相关的倡导群体。NGO的基金至少有一部分来源于私人捐款。现在该名词的使用一般与联合国或由联合国指派的权威NGO相关。而大多数非政府组织(NGO)都是非营利组织(NPO-Non-profit Organization).
[7] public interest groups：lnterest group，利益团体，或称利益集团，是指具有相同利益并向社会或政府提出诉求，以争取团体及其成员利益、影响公共政策的一群人。利益团体可以分为两大类：经济性利益团体和公共利益团体(public interest group)。
[8] World Wide Web：万维网(亦作“网络”、“WWW”、“W3”，或英文“Web”)，是一个资料空间。在这个空间中：一样有用的事物，称为一样“资源”；并且由一个全域“统一资源标识符”(URI)标识。这些资源通过超文本传输协议(Hypertext Transfer Protocol)传送给使用者，而后者通过点击链接来获得资源。从另一个观点来看，万维网是一个透过网络存取的互连超文件(interlinked hypertext document)系统。万维网联盟(World Wide Web Consortium，简称W3C)，又称W3C理事会。1994年在美国的麻省理工学院(MIT)计算机科学实验室成立。建立者是万维网的发明者蒂姆·伯纳斯·李。
[9] portal:门户，原意是指正门、入口，现多用于互联网的门户(入口)网站和企业应用系统的门户系统。所谓门户网站(入口网站)，是指通向某类综合性互联网信息资源并提供有关信息服务的应用系统。门户网站通过门类众多的业务来吸引和留驻互联网用户，以至于目前门户网站的业务包罗万象，成为网络世界的“百货商场”或“网络超市”。
[10] one-stop shop: 一站式购物店，是指商店商品很齐全，顾客不用东奔西走，在一个地方就可以买到所要买的东西。
[11] groupware:组件，群件。-ware是一种常用的英语后缀，单词十后缀，即由一个单词与某一后缀共同组成一个新的单词。-ware表示“商品；物品；器皿；件，软件”，如：
kitchenware厨房用具
freeware免费软件
shareware共享软件等。
ironware铁器
silverware银器
stoneware瓷器
copperware铜器
[12] outsourcing: 外部采办，外购。商业用语，是商业活动决策之一，指将非核心业务下放给专门营运该项运作的外间第三者，旨在节省成本、集中精神于核心业务、善用资源、获得独立及专业人士服务等。
[13] be Iikely to: 可能(可预期的)。如：
The boss said we were likely to work overtime today．老板说我们今天很可能要加班。
A．it will exert more influence on the government management
B．it is an application of computer in government management
C．it should be made more democratic and responsive
D．it is only another way to conduct business
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