Part B （10 points) You are going to read a text about language, followed by a list of exam

Part B (10 points)

You are going to read a text about language, followed by a list of examples, Choose the best example from the list for each numbered subheading. There is one extra example which you do not need to use.

Language, the principal means used by human beings to communicate with one another. Language is primarily spoken, although it can be transferred to other media, such as writing. If the spoken means of communication is unavailable, as may be the case among the deaf, visual means such as sign language can be used. A prominent characteristic of language is that the relation between a linguistic sign and its meaning is arbitrary.

(41) Language and Language Abilities

Language can be used to discuss a wide range of topics, a characteristic that distinguishes it from animal communication. The dances of honey bees, for example, can be used only to communicate the location of food sources.

(42) The Sounds of Language

Because most languages are primarily spoken, an important part of the overall understanding of language involves the study of the sounds of language.

Most sounds in the world's languages—and all sounds in some languages, such as English—are produced by expelling air from the lungs and modifying the vocal tract between the larynx and the lips.

(43) Units of Meaning

While many people, influenced by writing, tend to think of words as the basic units of grammatical structure, linguists recognize a smaller unit, the morpheme. The word cats, for instance, consists of two elements, or morphemes: cat, the meaning of which can be roughly characterized as "feline animal", and-s, the meaning of which can be roughly characterized as "more than one".

(44) Word Order and Sentence Structure

Syntax is the study of how words combine to make sentences. The order of words in sentences varies from language to language. English-language syntax, for instance, generally follows a subject-verb-object order, as in the sentence "The dog (subject) bit (verb) the man (object)". The sentence "The dog the man bit" is not a correct construction in English, and the sentence "The man bit the dog" has a very different meaning. In contrast, Japanese has a basic word order of subject-object verb, as in "watakushi-wa hon-o kau", which literally translates to "I book buy".

(45) Meaning in Language

While the fields of language study mentioned above deal primarily with the form. of linguistic elements, semantics is the field of study that deals with the meaning of these elements. A prominent part of semantics deals with the meaning of individual morphemes.

A. For instance, the sound p requires complete closure of the lips, so that air coming from the lungs builds up pressure in the mouth, giving rise to the characteristic popping sound when the lip closure is released. The sound used by English speakers to express annoyance, often spelled tsk or tut, uses air trapped in the space between the front of the tongue, the back of the tongue, and the palate.

B. Semantics also involves studying the meaning of the constructions that link morphemes to form. phrases and sentences. For instance, the sentences "The dog bit the man" and "The man bit the dog" contain exactly the same morphemes, but they have different meanings. This is because the morphemes enter into different constructions in each sentence, reflected in the different word orders of the two sentences.

C. While the language-learning abilities of apes have surprised many and there continues to be controversy over the precise limits of these abilities—scientists and scholars generally agree that apes do not progress beyond the linguistic abilities of a two year-old child.

D. First-language acquisition is a complex process that linguists only partially understand. Young ch